Descartes' Discourse on the Method (Part IV) Research Paper

Descartes' Discourse on the Method (Part IV) - Research Paper Example Descartes’ Discourse on the Method (Part 4) In part four of his Discourse method, Rene Descartes delves into finding out the metaphysical basis of knowledge or truth. Having resolved to doubt any belief that he had earlier on held, and to subject all his earlier beliefs into critical evaluation through his discourse method, Descartes had to find a rational basis of knowledge that would serve as the foundation for his system of Philosophy. Descartes sought to break from the past after realising that he could doubt everything that he had earlier on held as the truth, he therefore, realised that all the theories of truth or of knowledge that his predecessors had given were insufficient and false. Descartes, therefore, started doubting everything including his own existence. But in the course of proving his own existence, Descartes ended up with a surprising argument proving God’s existence. This paper analysis and evaluates Descartes discourse method in part four and focus es on how Descartes deviated from proving his own existence as the basis of all knowledge to prove the existence of God as the source of truth. ... le he can doubt everything, he cannot, however, doubt his own existence because the doubting of his own existence requires him first to exist so as to be able to doubt. Consequently, one has to be so as to doubt, and with this realisation, Descartes found an indubitable basis of truth that would serve as the basis of his epistemology. Following this realisation he proclaimed, ‘’I think, therefore I am’’ (Descartes, Discourse on the Method, Part Four, online). This means that his very doubting self is the proof of his existence. Descartes, therefore, conceived himself as a thinking self because his thinking or doubting nature is the only thing that he could not doubt. But proving his own existence wasn’t the end of his journey in finding out the metaphysical foundation of knowledge. This is because after proving the truth of his own existence, he had now to proceed to prove the truth of other things external to him. Having proved his own existence as an indisputable truth, Descartes sought to know what makes propositions true. Since some propositions are true, like the one that he had already proved about his own existence, there must be something universal in such propositions that make them true. And reflecting on the proposition that he had already proved as indubitable truth, Descartes realised that the only assurance that he had of the truth of the proposition, I think, therefore I am, is that he could clearly and distinctly see that in order to think, he had to exist first. Descartes, therefore, took it as a general rule, that whatever is conceived clearly and distinctly must be true (Descartes, Discourse on the Method, Part four, online). But the problem in applying his general rule lay in recognizing the things that could be conceived clearly and

ENTREPRENEURSHIP & INNOVATION IN ORGANISATIONS Assignment

ENTREPRENEURSHIP & INNOVATION IN ORGANISATIONS - Assignment Example 88). Innovation introduces a change, a new combination from what is familiar. Schumpeter, a pioneer in the study of innovation and entrepreneurship, posits that the main force that brings about this structural change is the â€Å"perennial gale of creative destruction† (Schumpeter, 1942). Thinking out of the box seems to be one valuable trait of innovators and entrepreneurs. Although related, the processes of innovation and entrepreneurship are different. Innovation is sparked by a new idea. The idea can be a new technology such as a gadget that can provide more convenience to consumers, a new service like an alternative form of relaxation, a new product, or even a new administrative procedure. Such ideas are driven by needs that are seen by the innovators. Innovation requires creativity. Engle, Mah & Sadri (1997) define Creativity as the ability to develop ideas through one of three processes. One is creation or the development of something new. Another is the synthesis or combination of concepts. The third process is modification or the changing or improvement of things (Anderson, 1992). Indulging in such processes makes the entrepreneur a creative thinker who modifies or rejects previously accepted ideas to build innovations from practically anything. In organizations, innovation becomes the growth of a new idea from its initial state into its actualized form as a full-blown innovation (Roberts, 2006). Schumpeter (1939) mentions various types of innovations: the introduction of new products, new methods of production and new forms of business organization as well as the penetration of new input—and output markets. The people who drive and protect the innovative ideas are the entrepreneurs. They are responsible in designing and developing a programme of activities that push the innovative idea forward.

Data Protection And Freedom

Data Protection And Freedom Data protection is an important concept of data maintenance. This data protection is achieved by implementing data protection methods and strategies. Data protection is done to protect the data from unauthorised users. Authorisation depends on the type of data and the rights to access it. An organisation protects its data from the intervention of unauthorised people by implementing the corresponding software. To accomplish this, the organisation requires specially trained people. Though data protection is an individual task, it cannot be accomplished in a stretch. Data protection includes data security, storage, recovery and back up. These functions are not performed by a standalone application; instead data protection is achieved by implementing various components and applications of the system. Data protection and the restriction of data are implemented by the government. The government of many countries has imposed data protection acts. These acts define the limit of access and the restriction as to who can access the particular data (Sizer, 1984). The purpose of passing such acts are to ensure that the data is which is personal or data that belong to a particular organisation are not accessed without the permission from the concerned person. A person can access or process another persons personal if and only if the person gives permission or access rights to him. This access rights are specified at the time of implementing the data protection measures. These data protection measure guards not only the data but also the hardware and softwar e components pertaining to the specified data. This is done to ensure that not even a small form of that data is accessed by an unauthorised person. Generally an organisation will protect its data by implementing encryption techniques. These encryption techniques protect the data as they are encrypted using a certain algorithm. Then the data is decrypted using a similar procedure and this protects the data from unauthorised users. Data Protection Acts Data protection acts differ from one country to another. The laws are imposed based on the countrys situation and the organisations status. Thus the organisation must abide by these laws to protect the data. The selection of laws depends on the companys situation and the prevailing problems (Smith, 1996). The problems can be resolved by implementing the standard strategies and procedures. The data protection acts cover every form of data and each law is specific for the type of data. Each and every law is an improved version of the act that was imposed earlier. This gives the organisation a wide range of options to choose from. The data protection acts were passed at regular intervals and the various acts are as outlined below. The data protection act 1998 deals with the personal data of each and every person. This act protects the personal data and even the processing of personal data. This act included various features which the earlier act did include. This was evident from the changes and modifications that were made to the act that was passed in the year 1984. These changes improved the act and it comprises of factors that influence the personal data and its manipulations. The factors and the inclusions of this act were made available in the website of the information commissioner. The information commissioners website had the complete information regarding this act and the website provided the details about the use and advantages of the act. The people were given the authority to access this website to retrieve the details pertaining to this act. This act specifies that the users are solely responsible for implementing the features of this act. The description and implication, working steps and the ways to make use of this act was clearly specified in the website. It also included the information regarding data processing. This was included as it would help the organisation or an individual to decide about the act and to check whether it can be applied to their data. This act comprised of the operations for data processing and storing. Any individual who revolts against the law will be punished according to the act. If an individual tries to access the data of another person without his permission, he will be sued under this act. Here personal data refers to the information of a living individual. The concerned person can protect the data using the data processor or the data controller (Sizer, 1984). This data controller may be processed by the user himself or can be maintained by professionals. The 1998 act includes certain unique features that protect the data stored in a machine and data that are in the form of hard copy. The hard copy data may be any photographs, audio or video recordings, and information from data readers. This act covers the intrusion and unauthenticated access to these types of data. Another inclusion in this act is the protection of sensitive data. Sensitive data includes data about politics, medical records and the caste related data. Data Protection Principles The data protection act 1998 imposes certain data principles that have to be followed in the process of data protection. The process of data protection comprises of data collection, storage, retrieval and the usage of sensitive data. There are seven data protection principles emphasised in the data protection act. Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully. (OPSI, 1998). This principle specifies that personal data must be processed only after an indication or permission is received from the concerned owner of data. Data controllers must get the consent from the owner before processing the personal data. Personal data shall be obtained only for one or more specified and lawful purposes, and shall not be further processed in any manner incompatible with that purpose or those purposes. (OPSI, 1998). Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purpose or purposes for which they are processed. (OPSI, 1998). Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date. (OPSI, 1998). Personal data processed for any purpose or purposes shall not be kept longer than is necessary for that purpose or purposes. (OPSI, 1998). Personal Data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects under the Act. (OPSI, 1998). Appropriate technical and organisational measures shall be taken against unauthorised or unlawful processing of personal data and against accidental loss or destruction of, or damage to, personal data. (OPSI, 1998). Freedom of Information Freedom of information act is imposed to access the information of the government and its related public sector authorities. This act allows an individual to access the information regarding the government which has not been released to the public. Generally only certain level of the information pertaining to a countrys government is available for the publics use. If an individual needs to access any other information, he is not allowed to access it without prior permission. This can be achieved using the freedom of information act. This act provides the public the rights and freedom to access the information that belongs to the government or any public sector company (Henry, 2003). This act covers every form of information and this act permits the user to access information of every medium. Thus a user can send a request to the concerned government for which the government will respond within duration of 20 days. Once the government receives a request, it has to decide whether this information can be provided to the user. Then the corresponding information is sent as a response to the respective request. This user need not necessarily belong to the same government. Instead a person residing in any part of the world can request the government. If an individual requests for information if he does not receive any response from the concerned organisation, the government will take action against the particular organisation. Hence it is the responsibility of the government authorities to provide the public with relevant information. Initially several freedom of information acts were passed in the government. This freedom of information act came into practice in the year 2005. The act was the result of publics interference with the governments affairs and information. This act includes the government bodies, government agencies, public sector companies and its related agencies. Since the rights and freedom of the public became stronger, the government had to provide them with the information they require. Though this act allows the public to know about the governmental information, sensitive data cannot be accessed by the public. The freedom act 2005 covers the universities also so that the aspiring students can get the information from the corresponding universities. The university provides these information to the students based on the universities norms. Though universities are covered under this act, certain information is protected from the users to avoid unnecessary problems. From the time this act has been implemented, the universities have received dozens of information requests. These requests are mostly regarding the fee waivers and other grievances. In most of the cases the request will be regarding the application forms and other visa information. Certain students may even request for the strategies followed in the university and this information is regularly viewed by distance learners (Sherick, 1978). Students who do not have a direct access to the university make use of these facilities. The freedom of information act 2008 included certain features and was certainly an improved version of the previous acts. In this act the government has included the provisions for the universities to provide the details regarding the standards of the courses provided by them. This included the maintenance of the university and the facilities provided in the university. Even the marks, grades and pass percentage for each course must be available for the public reference. Since the public have the rights to know about the academic standards and procedures the due information should be made available to them. Benefits of Freedom of Information Act The freedom of information act provides various benefits to the public as well as the government. This is beneficial to the government since the required information is known to the public. This reduces the burden of explaining each and every law and procedures that exist in the government. Hence this acts as an advantage to the government. Another benefit of this act is it ensures that no secret laws and amendments are passed in the government. This is possible since the public are in constant touch with the governments policies and the updates (Henry, 2003). This will help the public to find out the flaws in the existing and proposed laws and acts. The freedom of information act will keep the public informed about the happenings in the government. Thus they can easily monitor the activities and can be sure that the government works in favour of them. The freedom of information act increases the publics right to review and access the information. This in turn increases the individuals right to privacy and the public can expect a good response in return. Due to the publics intervention in the governments laws and acts, the government works better to serve the public and provide them with better benefits. Since the public stay in constant touch with the governments policies and regulations, it becomes difficult for the government and public sector bodies to change or modify the existing policies (Sherick, 1978). Though it may seem to be difficult to implement freedom of information act in developing countries, it would definitely serve the intended purpose. Conclusion Freedom of information act was a result of the publics interest and intervention in the day to day happenings in the government. As people have the right to express their opinion and to request the government for any of their grievances. The freedom of information act is definitely an advantage to the public as they can have the complete information regarding any of the governments rules and regulations. This eases the work of the government since people become aware of the prevailing situation and the facilities provided by the government. If the freedom of act is followed, it will help the government and public sector bodies to maintain a cordial relationship with the public. This in turn improves the level of communication between the public and the government.

Aboriginal Athletes in the World of Professional Sports :: Essays Papers

Aboriginal Athletes in the World of Professional Sports Terrence and Jordin Tootoo grew up in Rankin Inlet, Nunavut, in Canada’s arctic region. They were like other Inuit children in Rankin Inlet in many respects: They were brought up to respect the customs of their people and they enjoyed the resources the land around them provided- they learned to hunt and fish for food like the others. However, the brothers were also different from their peers in one main respect- they were blessed with a love for the game of hockey, and also with extraordinary amounts of talent which would enable them to leave their native community to pursue the dream of professional hockey. While the brothers were growing up they were inseparable; however, after leaving Rankin Inlet to pursue the professional game their respective careers took strikingly different paths. Jordin’s journey took him to the top- he was drafted into the National Hockey League and signed a lucrative contract with the Nashville Predators. However, Terrence’s road to th e professional ranks was filled with hardship and tragedy, ultimately resulting in his suicide in August of 2002. The contrasting paths taken by the brothers is an illustration of how professional sporting careers can have varying impacts on the lives of Native American and Canadian athletes and their communities. In the following few paragraphs I will outline the history of Native Americans and Canadians in sports. I will examine how successful Native athletes are able to help their communities, both financially and by serving as role models for younger Natives. Also, I will argue that their still exist barriers and challenges to Native athletes that do not confront other athletes. For example, Native athletes are often placed under increased scrutiny because of their positions as role models. I will conclude by commenting on how Native athletes fit into pro sports today, and speculate on what can be done to increase the amount of success enjoyed by Natives. Participation in sports and games has long been a part of Native culture. The most significant example of a sport invented and played by Natives is lacrosse. Lacrosse is still designated as the official sport of Canada despite the overwhelming popularity of hockey (http://canada.gc.ca). Lacrosse was one of many varieties of indigenous stickball games being played by Native Americans and Canadians at the time of European contact. Almost exclusively a male team sport, it is distinguished from other stick and ball games, such as field hockey or shinny, by the use of a netted racquet with which to pick the ball off the ground, throw, catch and vault it into or past a goal to score a point.

The Armenian Genocide

â€Å"The Armenian Genocide† In 1948, the United Nations adopted the Genocide Convention, and in doing so defined the term â€Å"genocide† as â€Å"acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole, or in part, a national, ethical, racial, or religious group† (Totten and Parsons 4). Indeed by many scholars, this is thought to be the case as to what happened to the Armenian population within the Ottoman Empire in 1915. Rouben Paul Adalian, author of the critical essay â€Å"The Armenian Genocide† published within the book Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts edited by Samuel Totten and William S.Parsons, claims this belief to be true. In his essay, Adalian describes what life was like before 1915, reasons why the genocide happened, how the genocide was committed, and the impact the genocide left on society. Before 1915 the Armenian people had lived freely in the region of Asia Minor for around 3000 years. However, around the 11th c entury Turkish tribes invaded the Armenians and took over the area while settling down permanently there.Because the Ottoman Empire eventually expanded their territory to Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, they needed an improved political system in order to govern everyone effectively (Adalian 55). As a result, Adalian notes that the Ottomans â€Å"imposed a strictly hierarchical social system that subordinated non-Muslims as second-class subjects deprived of basic rights† (55). In spite of the Armenians being deemed second-class citizens socially, they were actually a middle-class group economically, leaving jealousy amongst the Muslims.Even though life for Armenians was serviceable, it would soon take a turn for the worst. There are a few reasons as to why the Armenian genocide became certain by 1915. The first reason was because of the decline of power in the Ottoman government. Because the Armenians could see that the government could not guarantee the prote ction of their property and life, the Armenians looked for reform (59). As a result, this created an increased feeling of hostility and stubbornness between the two.The second reason was because of the military weakness of the Ottoman Empire. According to Adalian, the military was â€Å"prone to resorting to brutality as a method of containing domestic dissent, especially with disaffected non-Muslim minorities† (60). The third and most important reason is because of the formation of the political organization known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). The party originally advocated for constitutionalism, egalitarianism, and liberalism, but when the party overthrew the government in 1913 everything changed.Radicals within the party were able to gain control and they were influenced by their German ally, leading to the promotion of turkification which was vehemently opposed by the Armenians (61). Shortly after the CUP gained power, they opted to invade Russia in order to gain more land. After the attempted invasion by the Ottoman Empire, they were quickly destroyed by the Russians and ended up losing territory. Because the CUP refused to accept responsibility of the embarrassing defeat, they used the Armenians as a scapegoat.Adalian goes on to say, â€Å"the Young Turks placed the blame on the Armenians by accusing them of collaboration with the enemy. Charging the entire Armenian population with treason and sedition† (62). The genocide officially began on April 24, 1915 and the abuse that the Armenians took while being deported was horrendous. The genocide of the Armenians was a plan carefully devised into three parts: deportation, execution, and starvation. Intellectuals and scholars of Armenian communities were abducted overnight on April 24 to ensure that the plan would go smoothly and reduce the amount of resistance.Soon after, women and children were ordered by the Ottoman government to leave town in the direction of the Syrian Deser t. Most Armenians went by foot and were extremely unprepared for the length of the journey. According to Adalian, â€Å"Only a quarter of all deportees survived the hundreds of miles and weeks of walking. Exhaustion, exposure, and fright took a heavy toll especially on the old and young† (58). This happened because the government purposely refused to give food and water to the Armenians.However, some were able to escape from the convoys of deportees when they stopped at other towns. Also, the government created a special organization made up entirely of convicts whose sole purpose was to rob, kidnap, and murder Armenians along the way. The absence of men in the deportation process was because the Ottoman Government had summoned them ahead of time in which they were imprisoned and tortured (58). The amount of desperation within the Armenians began to grow, â€Å"Men and women dying of thirst were shot for approaching the Euphrates River.Women were stripped naked, abused, and murdered. Others despairing of their fate threw themselves into the river and drowned† said Adalian (59). When the Armenians reached their destination of Deir el-Zor, the remaining survivors were murdered in cold blood. In all, around 1 million Armenians were killed during the deportation, scarring them for years to come. The genocide left a tremendous impact on the Armenian people. Whole communities were destroyed, leaving many in need of food, clothing, and housing (71).Also, there was incredible trauma placed on the Armenians, and they had to face the fact that they were most likely not going to be compensated for everything they had lost. Even when the few survivors returned back to their homes, they were unwelcomed and forced to leave. Possibly the greatest impact the genocide had induced, was the fact that for the first time in over 3000 years, the Armenians no longer lived in their homeland (71). There is still resentment today between the Armenians and Turks mainly bec ause the Turkish government refuses to acknowledge that the genocide ever occurred.Adalian concludes, â€Å"The experience of the Armenian people in the period after the genocide teaches another important lesson. Unless the consequences of genocide are addressed in the immediate aftermath of the event, the element of time very soon puts survivors at a serious disadvantage. Without the attention of the international community, without the intervention of major states seeking to stabilize the affected region, without the swift apprehension of the guilty, and without the full exposure of the evidence, the victims stand no chance of recovering from their losses.In the absence of a response and of universal condemnation, a genocide becomes ‘legitimized’† (77). Works Cited Adailian, Rouben Paul. â€Å"The Armenian Genocide†. Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eye Witness Accounts. Ed. Samuel Totten and William Parsons. 3rd ed. New York Routledge, 2009. 55- 92. Print. Totten, Samuel, and William S. Parsons. â€Å"Introductions†. Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eye Witness Accounts. Ed. Samuel Totten and William Parsons. 3rd ed. New York Routledge, 2009. 1-14. Print.

The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli

One of Sandro Botticelli’s most famous paintings represents a classical myth – the birth of Venus (1485–1486). This painting shows the myth of Venus’ birth. Botticelli based the picture in a text: â€Å"the profane Birth of Venus and the coronation of the sacred Venus. It was written by Ange Poliziano, based on an ode by Hesiod. † (Berger Foundation, 2006) â€Å"The effect, nonetheless, is distinctly pagan, taking as inspiration written descriptions by the 2nd century historian Lucian of masterpieces of Ancient Greece, was made at a time and place when most artworks depicted Roman Catholic themes.It is somewhat surprising that this canvas escaped the flames of Savonarola's bonfires, where a number of Botticelli's other â€Å"pagan† influenced works perished. Botticelli was very close to Lorenzo de Medici. Because of their friendship and Lorenzo's power, this work was spared from Savonarola's fires and the disapproval of the Church. † ( Wikipedia, 2006) The picture can be divided into three parts: At the left, Zephyr and Chloris fly with tangled limbs. Around them, there are falling roses with golden hearts. At the right part, the trees form part of a flowering orange grove, related to the Greek myth of Hesperides’ sacred garden.At the center appears the Nymph, that might be one of the Greek goddesses of the seasons (Spring or Flora) which welcomes her on land; and the shell where it can be seen maybe not Venus’ birth but the moment when she lands at Paphos in Cyprus, having been carried by the shell. Tolstoy’s interpretation of art Leo Tolstoy, besides his well known literature work, has developed his own theory of art, which emphasises the importance of art to human beings through the communication from the artists to the receivers their emotions and feelings. For him art is a mean of communication of feeling rather than ideas.The artist communicates through the use of colour, sound, movement or words, an emotion or feeling that he has previously experienced. Tolstoy denies different conceptions on art, like those which say that is a manifestation of some mysterious idea, or that art is a way to let off the excess of energy stored by men, or just pure pleasure. For Tolstoy art is a mean of union among men, essential to life, fostering the spiritual evolution of humankind. Birth of Venus under Tolstoy’s perspective It can be stated that Botticelli takes from different artists and thinkers the foundations which uses to express his feelings and emotions.During his time, the renaissance, ancient mythology was admired again. Artists and men of science gathered around the princes, and they all lived together. Among these men interest in the past grew and they started to translate Virgil, Homer, Hesiod and Pindar. Thus, it was very feasible that the humanist ideas propagated rapidly. The art in Florence started to growth and the humanist ideas were incorporated into the artists’ work. To interpret art it is important to pay attention to the links â€Å"between motifs in the works in question and other cultural phenomena of the time, including literary and theological documents. † (Matthew, 1997)Boticcelli’s Birth of Venus, painted for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de Medicis, is a palpable example of what Tolstoy referred in his theory. Without communication between these people it might be impossible to produce this painting. It reflects the ideas that were common among these men. Now, there is the fact of what feelings or emotions Botticelli tried to express. The story of Venus’ birth is a divine message which brought beauty to humanity. It might be understood that the painter tried to represent this myth in a valuable way. The painting communicates Botticelli’s emotions in front of the power of nature’s creative force.Collingwood’s vision of art Collingwood’s vision of art states that â€Å"th e work of art is a purely imaginary object, existing only and truly, in the artist’s mind and that it is an expression of the artist emotion. † (Collingwood, 1938) Therefore, if the work only exists in the artist’s mind, its physical representation is a way to represent it to others. The way that Collingwood sees art could be explained in this order: the artist has feelings which are unconscious, he gets aware of them through emotions and its expressions, and thus he is conscious of the feeling.Then, the way that he liberates from the oppression of these feelings is through his artistic expression. Thus, art is the way that the artist expresses his own emotions for himself. â€Å"Communicating that emotion to others is secondary† ((Collingwood, 1938) as he views artistic creation as, basically, a process of self acknowledgment. The intention is to make it understood the way that the artist who has expressed the emotion felt in having the emotion. Birth of Venus according to Collingwood’s perspective Under Collingwood’s perspective is complex to establish an analysis of Botticelli’s picture.According to his particular view of art, the painter tries to express his emotions in a way to put his mind at ease. Therefore, it is necessary to understand what feelings or emotions were â€Å"perturbing† Botticelli’s mind. He was trying to explore his own emotions, thus the only thing that can be analysed is the secondary communication, the one that is possible thanks to the fact that the artist uses to express himself a language that might be understood by everyone. What emotions were driving the painter? By looking at the picture one may asses that he feels overwhelmed and amazed by nature’s force.Also, besides the beauty of the painting, an uncommon length of Venus’ neck and the unusual angle that her left arm describes aid to attain harmony, enhancing the feeling of a subtle and tender being, as the story says, a gift from heaven. Botticelli painted â€Å"men and women†¦daddened perpetually by the shadow upon them of the great things from which they shrink. † (David, 1980) Conclusion Collingwood’s theory of art opposes to Tolstoy’s. While Tolstoy says that the only reason of art is communication, Collingwood says that art is a purely imaginary object, existing only in the artist’s mind, thus is an expression of the artist emotion.They both are aware of the fact that emotions are remarkably essential in the creation of art, but Collingwood’s account of the emotions is very different from Tolstoy’s. He says that the artist expression is a way of self liberation from the feelings or emotions, while Tolstoy’s says that the artist wants to communicate a feeling that the artist has previously experienced. For Collingwood, creation is in some way self-seeking, while for Tolstoy is an act of communication essential for unders tanding among humanity. References The Birth of Venus (Botticelli) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediahttp://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus_%28Botticelli%29 Rampley, Matthew, 1997 â€Å"From Symbol to Allegory: Aby Warburg's Theory of Art†. Journal article; The Art Bulletin, Vol. 79, Cowart, David, 1980 â€Å"Thomas Pynchon: The Art of Allusion† Book. Southern Illinois University Press, Wikipedia. 2006 Sandro Botticelli article. November. Jacques-Edouard Berger Foundation. â€Å"World Art Treasures† R. G. Collingwood, 1938, Art as an Expression